In the second (June–July 1913), fought between Bulgaria and the remaining Balkan states (including Romania) over the division of Macedonia, the Ottomans intervened against Bulgaria and recovered part of eastern Thrace, including Edirne. In August he was replaced by Sharif Haydar, but in October he proclaimed himself king of Arabia and in December was recognized by the British as an independent ruler.

The French agreed to accept the matter as closed. [5], Ottoman's entrance into the war greatly increased the Triple Entente's military burdens. By signing up for this email, you are agreeing to news, offers, and information from Encyclopaedia Britannica. These new Muslim states needed support to be emerged as viable independent states. Halil Bey thought the Entente to cease hostilities and bring a rapid end to the war. Nationalism emerged at the center of the diplomatic struggle between the Central Powers and the Bolsheviks. The Ottoman mobilization included hundreds of thousands of Arab conscripts as well as members of other non-Turkish groups, such as Greeks, Armenians, and Assyrians. Except for the interest of Russia in Istanbul and the straits between the Black and Mediterranean seas, no European power had genuinely vital interests in the Ottoman Empire. The Russian withdrawal in 1917 and postwar bargaining led to some modifications of those agreements, and the Allied terms were not finally presented until 1920. The accusation that the Young Turks pursued a deliberate policy of Turkification within the empire in order to alienate non-Turks and promote the rise of Arab and Albanian nationalism is an oversimplification. Pan-Turkism, which aimed at the political union of all Turkish-speaking peoples, began among Turks in Crimea and along the Volga River.
The British Empire engaged in the conflict 2,550,000 men on the various Ottoman fronts, or 32% of its total strength; the Russian Empire, up to 7,020,000 men in September 1916, or 19% of its forces; France, 50,000 men, mainly to the Dardanelles, and Italy, 70,000 men in Libya against a pro - Ottoman rebellion. Entente proposals for the partition of Ottoman territories were formulated in a number of wartime agreements. The war tested to the limit the empire's relations with its Arab population. [18] The debt was administered by the Ottoman Public Debt Administration and its power extended to the Imperial Ottoman Bank (equates to modern central banks). Abdülhamid was deposed and replaced by Sultan Mehmed V (ruled 1909–18), son of Abdülmecid. In October 1908 Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Bulgaria proclaimed its independence. [53][54][55], War in Mesopotamia, Sinai and Palestine and Gallipoli, British troops entering Baghdad March 1917, In 1917, Ottoman forces at the shores of the. The process of secularization of the law was carried much further. [19], The Ottoman–German Alliance was an alliance was ratified on August 2, 1914, shortly following the outbreak of War I. The Armenian Genocide,[36] also known as the Armenian Holocaust,[37] was the Ottoman government's systematic extermination of 1.5 million Christian Armenians, mostly Ottoman citizens within the Ottoman Empire and its successor state, the Republic of Turkey. While the Ottomans – concentrating more on Muslims on the home front than beyond Ottoman boundaries – fared rather well, German efforts to raise Muslims to anti-colonial revolts failed rather miserably. The foreign relations of the Ottoman Empire under the Young Turks led to disaster. A fourth, the German empire, was significantly reduced in size, stripped of its overseas colonies, and transformed into a parliamentary democracy. The principle of "self-determination" became the criterion, or at least in part, to give them a chance to stand on their feet. As a result of fighting, mobilization, training, requisition, and other wartime activities across vast imperial domains in Africa, the Middle East, Asia, and Oceania, the impact of the war was felt profoundly by hundreds of millions living in those regions.

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